The Factors Causing Discrimination Against Indonesian Women in the Workplace, Mapping of Problems from 2012 to 2022
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59188/eduvest.v5i12.51899Keywords:
gender literacy, gender sensitivity, gender discrimination, career womenAbstract
Indonesia, one of the world's most populous nations with a significant female population, continues to face workplace gender discrimination despite legislative frameworks and improving gender equality rankings. Although Indonesia rose to 92nd globally in 2022 (from 99th in 2021), gaps between policy and practice remain, especially regarding women’s participation and advancement in employment. This study fills a critical research gap by systematically mapping factors behind workplace discrimination against Indonesian women. A search across four major databases (ScienceDirect, Emerald Insight, Sage, and Taylor & Francis) for "discrimination against Indonesian women in the workplace" yielded 5,605 results. After filtering, 38 peer-reviewed empirical studies from 2012 to 2022 focused on this issue were included. The research identified multiple discrimination factors: cultural beliefs, inability to do heavy or fieldwork, sexual harassment, religion, low education levels, domestic conflict, mistrust, fear of competition, bureaucracy, withholding worker documents, disability, sexism, neoliberalism, virginity stigma, marital status, racial and ethnic differences, LGBT issues, egocentrism, feminism, workforce age, communication, lookism, and lack of community support. Culture was the leading factor (22% of studies), followed by perceptions of physical capability (10%), sexual harassment (8%), and educational barriers (8%). These findings show how Indonesian workplace discrimination results from the complex interplay of traditional gender norms, institutional structures, and economic pressures.
References
Afifah, W. (2017). Hukum dan konstitusi perlindungan hukum atas diskriminasi pada hak asasi perempuan di dalam konstitusi. DiH Jurnal Ilmu Hukum, 13(26), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.30996/dih.v0i0.1583
Afrianty, T. W., Burgess, J., & Issa, T. (2015). Family-friendly support programs and work family conflict among Indonesian higher education employees. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 34(8), 726–741. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-04-2015-0026
Alam, M., Mahalle, S., & Suwarto, D. H. (2023). Mental distress among Indonesian academic mothers during enforced remote working. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 47(7), 941–953. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2023.2203802
Arief, V., Widianingsih, I., Bekti, H., & Susanti, E. (2022). E-government policy analysis of Government of the Republic of Indonesia from 2001 to 2022. Seybold Report Journal, 17(12), 852–869. https://doi.org/10.5281/zendo.7450468
Arisman, A., & Jaya, R. K. (2021). Labour migration in ASEAN: Indonesian migrant workers in Johor Bahru, Malaysia. Asian Education and Development Studies, 10(1), 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1108/AEDS-02-2019-0034
Arquisola, M. J., Zutshi, A., Rentschler, R., & Billsberry, J. (2020). Academic leaders' double bind: Challenges from an Indonesian perspective. International Journal of Educational Management, 34(2), 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-10-2018-0328
Badan Pusat Statistik Republik Indonesia. (2022). Tingkat penyelesaian pendidikan menurut jenjang pendidikan dan jenis kelamin 2020–2022. https://www.bps.go.id/indicator/28/1982/1/tingkat-penyelesaian-pendidikan-menurut-jenjang-pendidikan-dan-jenis-kelamin.html
Caron, L. (2020). Disability, employment and wages: Evidence from Indonesia. International Journal of Manpower, 42(5), 866–888. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-01-2020-0022
Choi, S., Li, H., & Ogawa, K. (2023). Upper secondary vocational education and decent work in Indonesia: A gender comparison. International Journal of Educational Development, 101, 102833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102833
Databoks. (2022). Lulusan perguruan tinggi lebih banyak perempuan ketimbang laki-laki. https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2022/03/09/lulusan-perguruan-tinggi-lebih-banyak-perempuan-ketimbang-laki-laki
Davies, S. G. (2018). Skins of morality: Bio-borders, ephemeral citizenship and policing women in Indonesia. Asian Studies Review, 42(4), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2017.1407292
Dedees, A. R. (2016). Merebut kursi impian: Partisipasi perempuan di tengah intervensi negara dan dinasti politik. Intizar, 22(2), 319–332. https://doi.org/10.19109/intizar.v22i2.947
Fiantis, D., Utami, S., Niswati, A., Nurbaity, A., Utami, S., Husnain, H., ... Minasny, B. (2022). The increasing role of Indonesian women in soil science: Current & future challenges. Soil Security, 6(3), 100050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soisec.2022.100050
Ford, M., & Kawashima, K. (2016). Regulatory approaches to managing skilled migration: Indonesian nurses in Japan. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 27(2), 231–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/1035304616629580
Halimatusa’diyah, I. (2013). Being Shi'ite women in Indonesia’s Sunni-populated community. South East Asia Research, 21(1), 131–150. https://doi.org/10.5367/sear.2013.0137
Hamdani, N. A., Ramadani, V., Anggadwita, G., Maulida, G. S., Zuferi, R., & Maalaoui, A. (2023). Gender stereotype perception, perceived social support and self-efficacy in increasing women's entrepreneurial intentions. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 29(6), 1290–1313. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-02-2023-0157
Hannah, N. (2017). Seksualitas dalam Alquran, hadis dan fikih: Mengimbangi wacana patriarki. Wawasan Jurnal Ilmiah Agama dan Sosial Budaya, 2(1), 45–60.
Hermawati, W., Ririh, K. R., Ariyani, L., Helmi, R. L., & Rosaira, I. (2023). Sustainable and green energy development to support women's empowerment in rural areas of Indonesia: Case of micro-hydro power implementation. Energy for Sustainable Development, 73, 218–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2023.02.001
Indaryani, S. (2018). Dinamika psikososial remaja korban kekerasan seksual. Jurnal Psikologi Perseptual, 3(1), 1–6.
Kartini, R. A. (2017). Habis gelap terbitlah terang. Narasi.
Kementerian Perlindungan Perempuan dan Anak Republik Indonesia. (2022). Akibat pandemi Covid-19 kesenjangan gender meningkat. https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/index.php/page/read/29/3730/akibat-pandemi-covid-19-kesenjangan-gender-meningkat
Kuntjara, E., & Hoon, C. Y. (2020). Reassessing Chinese Indonesian stereotypes: Two decades after Reformasi. South East Asia Research, 28(2), 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/0967828X.2020.1729664
Lai, F. Y. (2021). Migrant workers and LGBT activism: A comparative study of Filipino and Indonesian domestic workers in Hong Kong. Sexualities, 0(0), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/13634607211025903
McLaren, H., Star, C., & Widianingsih, I. (2019). Indonesian women in public service leadership: A rapid review. Social Sciences, 8(11), 308. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8110308
Mee, W. (2015). Work and cosmopolitanism at the border: Indonesian women labour migrants. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 41(12), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2015.1049589
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1992). Analisis data kualitatif: Buku sumber tentang metode-metode baru (T. R. Rohidi, Trans.). Universitas Indonesia Press.
Miranti, R., Sulistyaningrum, E., & Mulyaningsih, T. (2022). Women’s roles in the Indonesian economy during the COVID-19 pandemic: Understanding the challenges and opportunities. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 58(2), 109–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2022.2105681
Mulya, T. W., & Sakhiyya, Z. (2020). “Leadership is a sacred matter”: Women leaders contesting and contextualising neoliberal meritocracy in Indonesian academia. Gender and Education, 33(7), 930–945. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2020.1802407
Nilan, P., Demartoto, A., Broom, A., & Germov, J. (2014). Indonesian men’s perceptions of violence against women. Violence Against Women, 20(7), 869–888. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801214543383
Noer, K. U., Chadijah, S., & Rudiatin, E. (2021). There is no trustable data: The state and data accuracy of violence against women in Indonesia. Heliyon, 7(12), e08552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08552
Noor, N. M., & Shaker, M. N. (2017). Perceived workplace discrimination, coping and psychological distress among unskilled Indonesian migrant workers in Malaysia. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 57, 19–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.01.004
Osterreich, S. T. (2020). Gender, decent work, and global production sharing in Indonesian manufacturing. Journal of Economic Issues, 54(1), 54–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/00213624.2020.1720563
Parker, L. (2015). The theory and context of the stigmatisation of widows and divorcees (janda) in Indonesia. Indonesia and the Malay World, 44(128), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639811.2015.1100863
Pemerintah Provinsi Jawa Barat. (2023). Syarat staycation untuk perpanjang kontrak kerja Ridwan Kamil itu kriminalitas. https://jabarprov.go.id/berita/syarat-staycation-untuk-perpanjang-kontrak-kerja-ridwan-kamil-itu-kriminalitas-9056
Perdana, K., & Mardiana, N. (2018). How managers perceive internal corporate social responsibility: An empirical study of Indonesian women's employment. In Redefining Corporate Social Responsibility (Vol. 13, pp. 177–192). https://doi.org/10.1108/S2043-052320180000013013
Petraki, E., & Ramayanti, I. (2018). Navigating the Indonesian workplace hierarchy: Managers’ use of humour as a rapport building strategy. Journal of Pragmatics, 134, 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2018.06.010
Platt, M., Yeoh, B. S., Acedera, K. A., Yen, K. C., Baey, G., & Lam, T. (2016). Renegotiating migration experiences: Indonesian domestic workers in Singapore and use of information communication technologies. New Media & Society, 18(10), 2207–2223. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816655614
Poerwandari, E. K., Munti, R. B., & Viemilawati, J. (2018). Pro-women’s policy advocacy movements in Indonesia: Struggles and reflections. Asian Journal of Women’s Studies, 24(4), 489–509. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2018.1538646
Prajuli, W. A., Yustikaningrum, R. V., & Amurwanti, D. N. (2021). How gender socialization is improving women's representation in Indonesia's foreign affairs: Breaking the ceiling. Australian Journal of International Affairs, 75(5), 527–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357718.2021.1893653
Rosida, I. (2018). Tubuh perempuan dalam budaya konsumen: Antara kesenangan diri, status sosial, dan nilai patriarki. Jurnal Antropologi: Isu-Isu Sosial Budaya, 20(1), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.25077/jantro.v20.n1.p85-101.2018
Savirani, A., Al Akbar, N., Jamson, U. N., & Asworo, L. (2021). Floating liberals: Female politicians, progressive politics, and PSI in the 2019 Indonesian election. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 40(1), 116–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/1868103421989084
Simorangkir, D. N. (2013). Lookism in Indonesia's public relations industry. Women's Studies International Forum, 40, 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2013.05.014
Simorangkir, D. N. (2015). Negotiated identities: Between “moral career” and professional career of single mothers in Jakarta. Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 21(2), 136–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2015.1062264
Simorangkir, D. N. (2020). Work-related sexual harassment and coping techniques: The case of Indonesian female journalists. Media Asia, 47(1–2), 23–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/01296612.2020.1812175
Soeters, S., Siscawati, M., Ratnasari, Anggriani, S., Nailah, & Willetts, J. (2021). Gender equality in the government water, sanitation, and hygiene workforce in Indonesia: An analysis through the Gender at Work framework. Development Studies Research, 8(1), 280–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/21665095.2021.1978300
Sumadi. (2017). Islam dan seksualitas: Bias gender dalam humor pesantren. El Harakah Jurnal Budaya, 19(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.18860/el.v19i1.3914
Tandos, R., Zhu, R., & Krever, R. (2022). The protection and empowerment of Indonesian female migrant domestic workers: Proposals from a multi-stage analysis. Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 28(2), 205–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2022.2051818
Tjahjadi, A. W., & Adhariani, D. (2022). Gender and corporate governance: Analyzing sexism, board dynamics, and firm performance in Indonesia. Gender, Technology and Development, 26(1), 74–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2022.2034094
Tjandraningsih, I. (2012). State-sponsored precarious work in Indonesia. American Behavioral Scientist, 57(4), 403–419. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764212466236
Wang, C., & Huang, J. (2020). Desiring homeland: The return of Indonesian Chinese women to Maoist China. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 29(2), 163–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/0117196820931314
Winarnita, M., Bahfen, N., Mintarsih, A. R., Height, G., & Byrne, J. (2020). Gendered digital citizenship: How Indonesian female journalists participate in gender activism. Journalism Practice, 16(4), 621–636. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2020.1808856
World Economic Forum. (2021). Global gender gap report. World Economic Forum.
World Economic Forum. (2021). Global gender gap report 2021. https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021/
World Economic Forum. (2022). Global gender gap report. World Economic Forum.
World Economic Forum. (2022). Global gender gap report 2022. https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2022/
Yulianto, J. E., Hodgetts, D., King, P., & Liu, J. H. (2022). Navigating tensions in inter-ethnic marriages in Indonesia: Cultural, relational, spatial and material considerations. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 86, 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.12.008
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Verdico Arief, Magdalena Depriyani, Asri Hidayati
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
