Sustainable Production of Liquid Smoke from Coconut Shell Waste Using Controlled Combustion and Agricultural Waste Biofilter
Downloads
Background: This study developed a novel process for producing liquid smoke from coconut shell waste through controlled pyrolysis, optimized by airflow control and a multistage biofilter using agricultural wastes (coconut fiber, rice husk, and coconut shell charcoal). Objective: To optimize liquid smoke production using coconut shell waste, control airflow during pyrolysis, and improve efficiency with an agricultural waste biofilter. Methods: Response Surface Methodology (RSM) identified the optimal conditions: 315 °C temperature, 65-min residence time, and a primary/secondary airflow ratio of 1:1.2. Temperature was the most significant factor, as validated by ANOVA, with a high R² model fit. GC-MS analysis identified 42 chemical compounds, and the condenser design and PID controller ensured efficient condensation and operational stability. Results: Under optimal conditions, the process yielded 68.5 mL/kg with a phenolic content of 93.2 mg GAE/g, a pH of 2.85, and no benzo[a]pyrene. FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of high-quality functional groups in the liquid smoke, including phenolic, guaiacol, 4-ethylphenol, and creosol compounds. The agricultural waste biofilter achieved 78.3% PAH removal and 94.5% phenolic compound retention with low pressure drop and minimal production cost compared to commercial filters. Conclusion: This innovative liquid smoke production process using coconut shell waste and agricultural waste biofilters is sustainable, low cost, and environmentally friendly. It effectively valorizes biomass waste, minimizes pollution, and produces food-grade liquid smoke, supporting the circular economy.
Adeoye, Abiodun Oluwatosin, Yelwa, Jibrin Muhammad, Imam, Naziru, Quadri, Rukayat Oluwatobiloba, Lawal, Olayide Samuel, Malomo, Dosu, Aasa, Samson Abiodun, Onakpa, Augustine Eyikwuojo, Dorgbaa, Ruth Kooaka, & Omoniyi, Busuyi Patrick. (2024). Pyrolysis of plastic wastes towards achieving a circular economy: an advanced chemistry and technical approach. In Dynamics of Transportation Ecosystem, Modeling, and Control (pp. 215–259). Springer.
ASTM. (2021). Standard Practice for Proximate Analysis of Coal and Coke. In Gaseous Fuels; Coal And Coke; Catalysts; Bioenergy And Industrial Chemicals From Biomass (D3172-13(2 ed., p. 2). https://doi.org/HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.1520/D3172-13R21E01
Ball, P. C., & Evans, R. (1988). Structure and adsorption at gas–solid interfaces: Layering transitions from a continuum theory. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 89(7), 4412–4423. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.454827
Costa, José Arnaldo S., Sarmento, Victor H. V, Romão, Luciane P. C., & Paranhos, Caio M. (2020). Adsorption of organic compounds on mesoporous material from rice husk ash (RHA). Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 10(4), 1105–1120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-019-00476-4
Ameko, E., Achio, S., Kutsanedzie, F., Abrokwah, A., Laar, D., Agbezuke, J. T., & Goddey, P. (2014). Conversion of Three Types of Waste Biomass in Ghana (Coconut Shell, Coconut Husk and Mahogany) into Liquid Smokes and Determination of the Sensory Profiles. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), 3(12), 1107–1114.https://doi.org/ 10.17577/IJERTV3IS120716.
Branton, P. J., McAdam, K. G., Duke, M. G., Liu, C., Curle, M., Mola, M., Proctor, C. J., & Bradley, R. H. (2011). Use of classical adsorption theory to understand the dynamic filtration of volatile toxicants in cigarette smoke by active carbons. Adsorption Science and Technology, 29(2), 117–138. https://doi.org/10.1260/0263-6174.29.2.117.
Budaraga IK, Arnim, Yetti, M., & Usman, B. (2016). Characteristics of Cinnamon Liquid Smoke Produced Using Several Purification Techniques. American Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Research, 3(2), 16–21. http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/fsnr.
Costa, J. A. S., Sarmento, V. H. V, Romão, L. P. C., & Paranhos, C. M. (2019). Synthesis of functionalized mesoporous material from rice husk ash and its application in the removal of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(25), 25476–25490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05852-1.
Desvita, H., Oramahi, H. A., Alkhadi, Diba, F., Yanti, H., Marwanto, & Heriansyah, M. B. (2025). Preliminary study on the chemical components of west kalimantan’s ubah rukkok wood (Santiria griffithii) liquid smoke. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 26(7), 343–351. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/204316.
Elfahmi, M., Sutiarso, L., Purwadi, D., & Machfoedz, M. M. (2024). Development of Integrated Coconut Agroindustry from a Circular Economy Perspective: A Literature Review. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1364(1), 12001.https://doi.org/ 10.1088/1755-1315/1364/1/012001.
Ferronato, N., & Torretta, V. (2019). Waste mismanagement in developing countries: A review of global issues. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060.
Frenzel, W. (2024). Prevention and mitigation of ultrafine particulate matter in private dwellings - A review For the first time a review is presented which is solely devoted to prevention and mitigation of ultrafine particle ( UFP ) indoor pollution in private dwellings . T [Technische Universität Berlin].https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.14279/depositonce-20686.
Gea, S., Haryono, A., Andriayani, A., Sihombing, J. L., Pulungan, A. N., Nasution, T., Rahayu, R., & Hutapea, Y. A. (2020). The stabilization of liquid smoke through hydrodeoxygenation over nickel catalyst loaded on sarulla natural zeolite. Applied Sciences (Switzerland), 10(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/APP10124126.
GrandViewResearch. (2024). Liquid Smoke Market Size & Trends. Market Analysis Report. https://www.grandviewresearch.com.
Guillén, M. D., Sopelana, P., & Partearroyo, M. A. (2000). Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Liquid Smoke Flavorings Obtained from Different Types of Wood. Effect of Storage in Polyethylene Flasks on Their Concentrations. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48(10), 5083–5087.https://doi.org/10.1021/jf000371z.
Hestina, J., Purba, H. J., Yusuf, E. S., Dabukke, F. B. M., Azhari, D., Darwis, V., & others. (2022). Industri kelapa indonesia: kinerja dan perspektif pengembangan menuju peningkatan nilai tambah dan daya saing. Forum Penelitian Agro Ekonomi, 40(1), 55–69.https://epublikasi.pertanian.go.id/ berkala/index.php/fae/article/view/1283.
Hutajulu, H., Runtunuwu, P. C. H., Judijanto, L., Ilma, A. F. N., Ermanda, A. P., Fitriyana, F., Mudjiyanti, R., Maichal, M., Boari, Y., Laksono, R. D., Saktisyahputra Saktisyahputra, Basir, I., Margoutomo, S. A. S., & Wardhana, D. H. A. (2024). Sustainable Economic Development: Teori dan Landasan Pembangunan Ekonomi Berkelanjutan Multi Sektor di Indonesia. PT. Sonpedia Publishing Indonesia.
Isa, I., Pomolango, R., & Iyabu, H. (2024). The Use of Liquid Smoke from Coconut Shell as a Natural Food Preservative in the Processing of Flying Fish. International Journal of Research and Review, 11(9), 180–189.https://doi.org/10.52403/ijrr.20240920.
Jain, N., Bhatia, A., & Pathak, H. (2014). Emission of Air Pollutants from Crop Residue Burning in India. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 14(1), 422–430.https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2013. 01.0031.
Jung, Kyung A., Nam, Chul Woo, Woo, Seung Han, & Park, Jong Moon. (2016). Response surface method for optimization of phenolic compounds production by lignin pyrolysis. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 120, 409–415.
Kondo, Y., & Arsyad, M. (2018). Analisis kandungan lignin, sellulosa, dan hemisellulosa serat sabut kelapa akibat perlakuan alkali. INTEK J. Penelit, 5(2), 94–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.31963/intek.v5i2.578.
Lee, R. P., Keller, F., & Meyer, B. (2017). A concept to support the transformation from a linear to circular carbon economy: net zero emissions, resource efficiency and conservation through a coupling of the energy, chemical and waste management sectors. Clean Energy, 1(1), 102–113. https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkx004.
Li, N., Zhu, Y., Lin, Y., Yang, Z., Chen, G., Ma, T., Dai, Q., & Liu, H. (2025). Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Activated Carbon Production Technologies in China: Comparative Analysis of Coal-Derived versus Biomass-Derived Pathways. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 13(27), 10715–10728. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5c04447.
Lin, K. C., Yen, C. Z., Yang, J. W., Chung, J. H. Y., & Chen, G. Y. (2022). Airborne toxicological assessment: The potential of lung-on-a-chip as an alternative to animal testing. Materials Today Advances, 14, 100216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtadv.2022.100216.
Liu, J., Du, C., Beaman, H. T., & Monroe, M. B. B. (2020). Characterization of phenolic acid antimicrobial and antioxidant structure--property relationships. Pharmaceutics, 12(5), 419. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics12050419.
M. Sari, R., Gea, S., Wirjosentono, B., & Hendrana, S. (2020). Quality Improvement of Liquid Smoke of Coconut Shell by Tar Scrubber. 1, 262–265.https://doi.org/10.5220/0008920802620265.
Majid, M. N., Ismail, N. R., Swandono, P., & Hermawan, D. (2021). Pengaruh ukuran serbuk kayu jati dan suhu pemanasan terhadap volume dan nilai kalor tar pada proses pirolisis. Jurnal Teknik Mesin Indonesia, 16(2), 75–80.
Montazeri, Naim, Oliveira, Alexandra C. M., Himelbloom, Brian H., Leigh, Mary Beth, & Crapo, Charles A. (2013). Chemical characterization of commercial liquid smoke products. Food Science & Nutrition, 1(1), 102–115.
Morawska, L., & Zhang, J. J. (2002). Combustion sources of particles. 1. Health relevance and source signatures. Chemosphere, 49(9), 1045–1058.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(02)00241-2.
Narayana Sarma, R., & Vinu, R. (2023). An assessment of sustainability metrics for waste-to-liquid fuel pathways for a low carbon circular economy. Energy Nexus, 12(September), 100254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2023.100254.
Puspaningrum, T., Indrasti, N. S., Indrawanto, C., & Yani, M. (2023). Life cycle assessment of coconut plantation, copra, and charcoal production. In Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management (Vol. 9, Issue 4, pp. 653–672).https://doi.org/10.22035/gjesm.2023.04.01.
Racioppo, A., Speranza, B., Pilone, V., Stasi, A., Mocerino, E., Scognamiglio, G., Sinigaglia, M. (2023). Optimizing liquid smoke conditions for the production and preservation of innovative fish products. Food Bioscience, 53, 102712.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2023. 102712.
Sari, R. M., Wahono, S. K., Anwar, M., Rizal, W. A., Suryani, R., & Suwanto, A. (2024). Pyrolysis of coconut shells for liquid smoke production: effect of integrated water scrubber on reduction of tar. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 14(20), 26105–26119.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-04675-y.
Selin, E., Mandava, G., Vilcu, A. L., Oskarsson, A., & Lundqvist, J. (2022). An in vitro-based hazard assessment of liquid smoke food flavourings. Archives of Toxicology, 96(2), 601–611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-021-03190-1
Setyawan, H. Y., Dewi, J. R., Ulandari, D., Pratiwi, D. A., & Pratama, A. P. A. (2023). Energi Biomassa. Universitas Brawijaya Press.
Sharma, Ramesh K., & Hajaligol, Mohammad R. (2003). Effect of pyrolysis conditions on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from polyphenolic compounds. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 66(1–2), 123–144.
Sheoran, K., Siwal, S. S., Kapoor, D., Singh, N., Saini, A. K., Alsanie, W. F., & Thakur, V. K. (2022). Air Pollutants Removal Using Biofiltration Technique: A Challenge at the Frontiers of Sustainable Environment. ACS Engineering Au, 2(5), 378–396.https://doi.org/10.1021/ acsengineeringau.2c00020.
Si, X., Yang, J., Zhang, F., Zhu, R., Liu, C., Jiang, W., Shen, Q., He, P., Tang, S., Li, Z., & others. (2022). Determination and difference analysis of phenolic compounds in smokers’ saliva and mainstream smoke. Journal of Analytical Methods in Chemistry, 2022(1), 6788394. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6788394.
Silaban, R., Lubis, I., Siregar, R. E., & Agus, P. (2022). Production of liquid smoke from the combination of coconut shell and empty fruit bunch through pyrolysis process. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Innovation in Education, Science and Culture, ICIESC, 11. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.11-10-2022.2325589.
Šimko, P. (2005). Factors affecting elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from smoked meat foods and liquid smoke flavorings. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 49(7), 637–647. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.200400091.
Singh, R. K., Ruj, B., Sadhukhan, A. K., Gupta, P., & Tigga, V. P. (2020). Waste plastic to pyrolytic oil and its utilization in CI engine: Performance analysis and combustion characteristics. Fuel, 262, 116539.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116539.
Singleton, V. L., Orthofer, R., & Lamuela-Raventós, R (1999). Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of folin-ciocalteu reagent. In Oxidants and Antioxidants Part A (Vol. 299, pp. 152–178). Academic Press.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(99)99017-1.
Sondakh, D. S. I., Tulungen, F. R., Kampilong, J. K., Rumondor, F. S. ., Kawuwung, Y. S., & Sanggelorang, E. P. (2024). Estimation of livestock greenhouse gas for impact mitigation. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 10(2), 857–872.https://doi.org/10.22035/ gjesm.2024.02.27.
Sondakh, D. S. I., Tulungen, F. R., Kampilong, J. K., Rumondor, F. S. J., Lapian, S. L. H. V. J., & Kawuwung, Y. S. (2024). The Agriculture Greenhouse Gas Inventory and Mitigation Action in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 15(6), 326–332.https://doi.org/10.18178/ijesd.2024.15.6.1503.
Sorour, M. A., Mehanni, A.-H. E., Mahmoud, E.-S. A., & El-Hawashy, R. M. (2023). Nitrate, nitrite and N-nitrosamine in meat products. Journal of Sohag Agriscience (JSAS), 8(1), 121–135.https://doi.org/10.21608/jsasj.2023.316218.
Sreejith, C. C., Muraleedharan, C., & Arun, P. (2013). Life cycle assessment of producer gas derived from coconut shell and its comparison with coal gas: An Indian perspective. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering, 4(1), 1–22.https://doi.org/10.1186/2251-6832-4-8.
Surboyo, M. D. C., Arundina, I., Rahayu, R. P., Mansur, D., & Bramantoro, T. (2019). Potential of Distilled Liquid Smoke Derived from Coconut (Cocos nucifera L) Shell for Traumatic Ulcer Healing in Diabetic Rats. European Journal of Dentistry, 13(2), 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0039-1693527.
Surboyo, M. D. C., Baroutian, S., Puspitasari, W., Zubaidah, U., Handy, P., Cecilia, Mansur, D., Iskandar, B., Ayuningtyas, N. F., Mahdani, F. Y., & Ernawati, D. S. (2024). Health benefits of liquid smoke from various biomass sources: a systematic review. BIO Integration, 5(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.15212/bioi-2024-0083.
Suryani, R., Rizal, W. A., Pratiwi, D., & Prasetyo, D. J. (2020). Karakteristik dan aktivitas antibakteri asap cair dari biomassa kayu putih (Melaleuca leucadendra) dan kayu jati (Tectona grandis). Jurnal Teknologi Pertanian, 21(2), 106–117.https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jtp.2020. 021.02.4.
Wibowo, S., Syafii, W., Pari, G., & Herliyana, E. N. (2023). Utilization of Lignocellulosic Waste As a Source of Liquid Smoke: a Literature Review. Jurnal Kesehatan Lingkungan, 15(3), 196–216.https://doi.org/10.20473/jkl.v15i3.2023.196-216.
Winarni, I., Gusmailina, & Komarayati, S. (2021). A review: The utilization and its benefits of liquid smoke from lignocellulosic waste. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 914(1).https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/914/1/012068.
Wolfgang, S., Reddy, N., Barshberg, S., & Sanadi, A. R. (2023). Coir from Coconut Processing Waste as a Raw Materialfor Applications Beyond Traditional Uses. Bioresource.Com, 18(1), 2187–2212.https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.18.1.Stelte.
Xin, X., Dell, K., Udugama, I. A., Young, B. R., & Baroutian, S. (2021). Transforming biomass pyrolysis technologies to produce liquid smoke food flavouring. Journal of Cleaner Production, 294, 125368.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125368.
Xiong, Y., Li, Z., Cao, T., Xu, S., Yuan, S., Sjöblom, J., & Xu, Z. (2018). Synergistic adsorption of polyaromatic compounds on silica surfaces studied by molecular dynamics simulation. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 122(8), 4290–4299.https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b10907.
Yang, Zhuangzhuang, Liu, Jinhui, Zhang, Aining, Liu, Yongjun, Lei, Jie, Liu, Pan, & Liu, Zhe. (2025). Sustainable application of functionalized resins in adsorbing and recycling aromatic compounds from complex wastewater systems: Exploration of synthesis strategies, performance predictions, and interaction mechanisms. Separation and Purification Technology, 361, 131369.
Yao, W., Zhao, Y., Chen, R., Wang, M., Song, W., & Yu, D. (2023). Emissions of toxic substances from biomass burning: a review of methods and technical influencing factors. Processes, 11(3), 853.https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030853.
Yusuf, K. O., & Murtala, M. O. (2020). Development and performance evaluation of a portable household ceramic water filter with activated carbon and magnetic treatment unit. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 17(9), 4009–4018.https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13762-020-02747-4.
Zango, Z. U., Sambudi, N. S., Jumbri, K., Ramli, A., Abu Bakar, N. H. H., Saad, B., Rozaini, M. N., Isiyaka, H. A., Osman, A. M., & Sulieman, A. (2020). An overview and evaluation of highly porous adsorbent materials for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols removal from wastewater. Water, 12(10), 2921.https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102921.
Zhang, M., Buekens, A., & Li, X. (2017). Open burning as a source of dioxins. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 47(8), 543–620.https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389. 2017.1320154.
Copyright (c) 2026 Yongker Baali, Maria Theresia Tulusan, Apriano Saerang, Merry Julia Jamilah Langi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
